Ageing Is A Biological Process Sociology Essay

Ageing Is A Biological Process Sociology Essay Ageing is a biological process, which is universal phenomenon and inevitable for all. As Heidegger states, â€Å"We are born, we live, we die.† (Featherstone Wernick, 1995: 1) Pilcher (1995) argues, ‘like class, ethnicity and gender, age is a social category through which people define and identify individuals and groups within society. Age is both an important part of how we see ourselves and how others see us. Age has various connotations, varying according to historical periods and culture. â€Å"Older adults [in industrialized countries] tend to be marginalized, institutionalized, and stripped of responsibility, power and, ultimately, their dignity. It wasnt always thus. In most prehistoric and agrarian societies, older people were often held in high regard. They were the teachers.† (Nelson, 2005) Unfortunately in contemporary society, especially the Western world, ageing has become perceived as an illness.   Biggs (1989) states that we are living in an age ist society where it is believed that a ‘predominant attitude towards older people is coloured by negative mixture of pity, fear, disgust, condescension and neglect. The elderly have become victims of their own survival. The number 65 has been regarded as the beginning of old age. Old age is referred to a time of life which is ‘bleak and hopeless (page 16) Many deny the notion of being ‘old in spite of this but a majority of the elderly are still affected by the very fact of being over 65. Society is also against people with mental illnesses. Just as the elderly are discriminated due to their, people with dementia are discriminated due to their illness. Dementia is said to be a second childhood, but it is not. It is said to rob the mind, but it does not. It is said to affect the elderly over 65, but it can affect a person from early as their forties. Ageism is part of the stigma that people with dementia suffer from. Ageism is deeply embedded within our society, and is very widespread. It is difficult to tackle as it is an unconscious process and often unnoticed. In 1969 Butler coined the term ageism to describe the process of systematic stereotyping and discrimination against older people. Cuddy Fiske (2002) argue that ageism is pervasive, affecting social interactions, housing, health care, employment, and social policy. Quadango (2008) refers to ageism as ‘the stereotyping of and discrimination against individuals or groups because of their age. It s a set of beliefs, attitudes, norms and values used to justify age based prejudice and discrimination. Kite and Johnson (1988) define ageism as ‘beliefs about elderly as unable to contribute to society, and hence as dispensable members of a community. These stereotypes arise from negative cultural attitudes. From these definitions, ageism can be defined to consist of three elements: prejudicial attitudes, discriminatory practices and i nstitutional practices. Traxler (1980) outlines four factors which contribute to ageism. Firstly, there is a fear of death. Secondly, there is an emphasis on youth culture. Thirdly, there is an emphasis on productivity. Fourthly, the research carried out on ageing. These elements can be reflected when analysing dementia. Many fear the symptoms of dementia, as there has been an association that dementia is ‘as if your dead. However, the fear has been exaggerated as ‘dementia is not normal dying (Murphy, __ : 13) There is an assumption that people with dementia cant participate in research or are unable to share their views and experiences. This becomes evident with the fact that dementia has been underfunded. Few resources have been allocated, as dementia in the elderly is not seen as a priority and they are not seen as worthy. Clearly, ageism is part of the social system. Perceptions of aging are formed as early as childhood.   We are surrounded with images of the elderly as a homogenous group that is dependent, lonely, frail and incompetent. These perceptions do not apply at a young age, and do not impact identity formation and therefore negative schema are more likely to be accepted without testing or questioning (Levy et al., 2002) Children hold their own expectations and perceptions about their aging process due to internalized ageing stereotypes. In a study, children were asked how they would feel about becoming an elderly person, of which 60% of these children gave responses rated as negative, including ‘‘I would feel awful (Seedfeldt et al., 1977: 509). Another study found that among children aged four to seven, 66% mentioned that they prefer not to become an elderly person (Burke, 1981). It is evident that children hold discriminatory attitudes towards the elderly, but these attitudes are internalised through socialisation, of where socialisation institutions such as families, media, and education play an important role. Adults hold negative attitudes towards the elderly, which impact the elderly in a destructive way. Palmore (1990) identified nine negative stereotypes associated with â€Å"the elderly.† These included illness, impotency, ugliness, mental decline, mental illness, uselessness, isolation, poverty and depression. One theory argues that perceptions and evaluations regarding ageing have been socially constructed. Social constructions reject ageing as natural and argue that individuals are moulded by socio-cultural factors. According to Berger and Luckman (2002), the social construction of reality relies upon a three-stage process. The first process is where people create culture. The second process involves these cultural creations becoming a reality, and is granted as natural and inevitable, where the third process involves reality being absorbed as valid by following generations. All of these negative attitudes create a new set of exclusions for the elderly person. As a result, the elderly are treated differently as a person and are often treated as ‘the others.   They are viewed and associated with labels such as ill health, poverty, passive and dependent. Heise (1984:__) argues that one stereotype of the elderly is that of a ‘weak and frail elderly. Butler (1987) argues that due to ageism, the elderly are seen as senile, rigid in thought and manner, and old-fashioned in morality and skill. There is a notion that the elderly go into a second childhood. This notion removes their adult status, and their personhood, undermining their worth and value. The elderly are reduced by their physical attributes, where there is a failure to see beneath the surface. They are seen in a state of remediable decline.   ‘Mask of ageing is a term of where the body betrays the person, as the body is unable to adequately signify the individuals inner self, l eaving a misrepresentation and imprisonment. One area that comprises of age-discrimination is seen in the workplace. Some positive stereotypes are associated, including the elderly being more loyal, reliable, experienced and responsible. However, there are also negative stereotypes found within the workplace, including being less adaptive with new innovations and changes. These stereotypes are continually perpetuated despite the fact that there is evidence for a correlation regarding their absenteeism, productivity, or competence. Mandatory retirement may be the most pervasive form of age-discrimination. Media can be seen to be the most pervasive for promoting ageism. It is clear to see how society values characteristics such as youth, autonomy and independence. Popular culture and the consumer culture such as magazines and politics consist of images of youth and beauty which encourage stereotypes of the elderly, of which these images are dominant. Furthermore, the elderly are significantly under-represented across all media.   Levy (2002) found that older people with positive perceptions of aging lived seven and a half years longer than those exposed to negative images of aging. Levy acknowledged that media is not solely to blame for promoting ageism, but it is the most identifiable source. Another area where ageism is pervasive is within the healthcare system, where they often receive inferior health care or are denied access. Within the healthcare system, the elderly are less likely to be referred for screening and treatment, likely to receive more medication prescriptions than younger people for equivalent symptoms, and misdiagnosed with symptoms accounting for ‘normal ageing.Alliance for Aging Research (2003) concludes that the elderly are less likely than younger people to receive preventive care, less likely to be tested or screened for diseases and other health problems, often ignored from proven medical interventions which in turn leads to them being given inappropriate or incomplete treatment, and also consistently excluded from clinical trials, despite being the largest users of approved drugs. They conclude that ageism within the health-care system â€Å"hurts everyone, because it leads to premature loss of independence, increased mortality and disabil ity, and depression in adults who might otherwise continue to lead productive, satisfying and healthier lives† (Alliance for Aging Research, 2003) â€Å"Our health care systems are unhealthy and unsustainable; we focus on the wrong conditions,† with dementia not being a focus. (Whitehouse, 2007: 63) Ageism within the health care system adds further impacts with those who have dementia. the report(irish study) indicates there is structural and organisational discrimination which highlighted a failure to prioritise dementia in terms of policy and resource allocation. As Neil Hunt, the chief executive of the Alzheimers Society states, There is no place for ageism in todays NHS. One in three over 65 will die with dementia yet we know only a third of people will ever receive formal diagnosis. People deserve to be treated with respect and equality regardless of age especially where assessment of symptoms and ongoing care are concerned. Not all people with dementia receive fa ir treatment. Dementia patients often need support of many kinds, frequently without knowing who to ask or what support to ask for. Despite this awareness, a majority of peoples needs are not met. Early symptoms are dismissed as ‘ageing, which delays diagnosis. It has also been found that health professionals lack the knowledge and training for dementia. Illife (1994) argues that GPs attitudes tend to nihilistic and many believe that nothing can be done. He found that 60% of GPs lacked confidence in making a diagnosis of early dementia and many found it difficult to advise about support services or to coordinate such services. The Audit Commission (2000) found fewer than half of general practitioners said they had received sufficient training. It also found that less than two thirds felt they had ready access to specialist advice, of which it required on readily access upon diagnosis. There is further conclusive evidence that there is an under-diagnosis and inadequate manageme nt towards dementia. A recent survey found that nearly two-thirds of general practitioners did not give a memory test and around 40% did not offer a diagnosis when consulted by patients with memory problems. Out of a sample of approximately 700 GPs, 71% felt that they did not have adequate training in and more than half were dissatisfied with community services for dementia. Another study found that most GPs felt they had little to offer dementia patients, early referral was unhelpful, and that the problem was mainly a social problem. Although these studies lean towards the negative aspect of treatments towards those with dementia, the same study found that 52.3% of GPs felt that early diagnosis was beneficial and 54.4% felt diagnosis of early signs of dementia was important. Furthermore, the study is questionable as the data is based on questionnaires. (Renshaw, 2001: 37) It is not only the elderly with dementia that are discriminated again. Ageism works both ways, affecting not only the elderly but also young people. Reverse ageism is where the young people are marginalised. There is little awareness or understanding of people who develop dementia at an early age, and this makes it difficult for younger people with dementia to access ample support. Many dementia care services have a minimum age requirement of 65, and therefore are not available to younger people. When services are available and accessible to younger users, they tend to be inappropriate to their needs. As a consequence, the younger people feel that they are made to fit in to a service, rather than the service fitting their needs. Iliffe (2003) found that 60% of GPs lacked confidence in making a diagnosis of early dementia. Ageism is a major issue that needs to be addressed in order to ensure the elderly are in receipt of fair treatment. Since the 1960s attempts have been made to eliminate age discriminations, with groups such as the Grey Panthers and Help the Aged.   In 2006 a ban on discrimination within the workplace was introduced with the UK Age Discrimination Act. This law makes it unlawful for employers and other staff to discriminate against a person on the basis of his/her age. The Act adopts four definitions, including direct discrimination, indirect discrimination, harassment and victimisation. As for the health care system, recent allegations claim the NHS to be institutionally ageist, and in response The Equality Bill has been debated about and proposes to eliminate the discrimination rooted within staff and the funding surrounding their care. The Green Paper talks about elderly care and dementia care, arguing that the current system needs amending as there is not insufficient money to pr ovide enough quality care and meet the needs. It acknowledges that an increase in funding is necessary, and to introduce a minimum care entitlement so that receives some Governmental support. An extract from the Green Paper states ‘the Governments vision is for a system that is fair, simple and affordable for everyone, underpinned by national rights and entitlements but personalised to individual needs. In the new National Care Service, everyone should be able to get really good care wherever they live and whatever they or their family need Due to ageism, the elderly and in particular people with dementia are faced with barriers and inequalities within society, which has been acknowledged and attempts have been introduced to eliminate and reduce them. On the one hand there are theories that there is a great lack of understanding about the realities of ageing, and on the other hand, there are theories that the fears of ageing are exaggerated. Ageism does exist, and there have been responses to eliminate these negative attitudes toward age. As mentioned, ageism exists within the health care system, and those who have been diagnosed with dementia not only suffer from the illness, but also suffer from ageism.

The National Health Services Essay -- Health, Insurance

The National health services (NHS) provides a comprehensive healthcare services across the entire nation. It is considered to be UK’s proudest institution, and is envied by many other countries because of its free of cost health delivery to its population. Nevertheless, it is often seen as a ‘political football’ as it affects all of us in some way and hence everyone carry an opinion about it (Cass, 2006). Factors such as government policies, funding, number of service users, taxation etc all make up small parts of this large complex organisation. Therefore, any imbalances within one sector can pose a substantial risk on the overall NHS (Wheeler & Grice, 2000). This essay will discuss whether the NHS aim of reducing the nations need for provision of health was achieved or not, taking into account different health models. The concept of NHS came into power from 5th July 1948. Although, Bevan who had this ideology of ‘welfare state’ was successful in architecting NHS. In fact, the need for such a consolidation of service provision was initially identified in 1919 by the Dawson Committee report (Christopher, 2004). The state in which healthcare system operated before1948 was incomprehensive, full of inequality and even lacked in providing minimum adequate standards to the general public. The people living in poverty and on Low income (working class) were affected the most; whereas, rich families were able to afford the healthcare services adequately. The health insurance was provided under the National Insurance Act 191, but was only available to the workers, whereas, their dependants (wife and children’s) were excluded. Therefore, every time they used the services they were required to pay for it. Thus, because most... ...are immense, as it has only finite resources to use, but needs its services to be clinically effective as well as able to meet the needs of individual’s, their choice of preferences and be value for money. To accomplish this NHS will need to harness more securely its investment in surveillance, analysis and budgets, and therefore establishing a framework that would than serve and provide a better health outcome to the entire nation. Lastly, UK spends about half of what is spent by the US (about 14 % of GDP) on its healthcare, yet in US out of 250 million over 30 million citizens are still without health care provision. Thus, despite such a massive expenditure by US government, failure to provide basic health care to millions of its citizen is not overcome, however, that is certainly not the case in UK (Bilton, et al., 2002; Christopher, 2004; Smith I. , 2007).

Introduction to Investment Appraisal Techniques

Firms throughout the world expand by starting projects and carrying out investments in different industries and sectors. An important building block in these investments is the analysis and later the evaluation of these projects on the basis of economic, cost and financial data. Investment appraisal techniques provide the financial data and also help managers determine the financial viability of each and every project under consideration. Concepts Related to Investment Appraisal MethodsAlmost all appraisal techniques are based on certain building blocks. These building blocks require estimations and forecasting of present data into the future. For instance future growth rates and interest rates need to be predicted in order to calculate the cost of capital for different projects. Similarly another important estimation is related to the cash inflows and cash outflows for a particular project. This requires the project evaluators or analysts to come up with accurate forecasts for sales , costs and other operating costs.Firms also need to look at the useful or life cycle of the project because that will determine the total net cash flows for a particular project, the time period will also tell the project evaluators about the time horizon of the project so that other economic and market factors could be considered as well while making the decision. Firms also need to plan the type of project evaluation techniques that must be used by the evaluators; for instance with projects that have a short-life span the Pay-Back method should be used to compare the speed with which each project is providing the initial investment.Many of the appraisal techniques must be used together to come to conclusions because of the way the data is presented to evaluators. For instance if a project is giving high returns in the later years but the overall average return is greater than another project that is giving high returns in the initial years than the evaluators might select the lat ter project because it is less risky. Important Investment Appraisal Techniques Pay-Back Period: This method simply calculates the time it will take a project to earn back the amount of money that was initially invested.This technique is extremely important in the comparison of those projects which have similar total life but varying cash flows throughout the life cycle. For instance in a scenario where interest rates are rising then evaluators would want to go for a project which has a lower Pay-Back period. This is because as interest rates increase the cost of capital will also increase and the real value of the returns will fall as we move into the future.Net-Present Value: This method discounts back all future cash-inflows and cash-outflows to the present values; the critical factor in this method is the determination of the discount/interest rate used to bring back the future values to the present. The important thing with this methodology is that it allows businesses to calcu late the real return that they will earn from the project i. e. businesses factor out the inflation or the nominal return that they might get from a project.Accounting Rate of Return: The ARR method provides the evaluators with a percentage that shows a return on the invested amount: say for instance if the ARR is 8% then the project is generating 8% returns annually on each dollar invested. This method does not discount the cash flows but it is helpful in the sense that it explains the potential of the project to generate enough cash flow so that a comparison can be made with other projects on an annual return basis. Internal Rate of Return: This method gives the evaluators with a percentage that shows the projects achieving net present value equal to zero.Essentially, the method calculates the rate at which the projects future calculated return (NPV) is equal to the initial invested amount. This method is extensively used by companies that plan on implementing large-scale projects . This rate gives evaluators an idea of what sorts of costs of capital is acceptable and at which levels or rates can we expect a profit. Value Addition from Appraisal Techniques The appraisal techniques discussed above are an extremely efficient way of substantiating projects and comparing the viability of different projects.The fact of the matter is that when firms want data for different projects while deciding which project to undertake they must objectively evaluate each project and the appraisal techniques provide an effective way of calculating financial data which can be used for analysis. Project Annual Net Cash flow Initial Investment Cost of Capital IRR NPV 1 ? 100,000 ? 449,400 14% A B 2 ? 70,000 C 14% 20% D 3 E ? 200,000 F 14% ? 35,624 4 G ? 300,000 12% H ? 39,000 Calculations for A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H The four projects have a useful life of 10 years. For project 1: Total Cash flow for 10 years: ?1,000,000. IRR: NPV= -? 449,400 + 100,000/ (1+R)1 + 100,000/(1+R)2 +†¦+ 100,000/(1+R)10 = 0. A = 18%; IRR = 18%. By using the trial and error technique we calculated the IRR to be 18%. NPV: -449,400/(1+0. 14)0 + 100,000/(1+0. 14)1 + 100,000/(1+0. 14)2 +†¦+100,000/(1+0. 14)10 = -449,400 + 521,611. 56 = 72,211. 56; B = 72,211. 56 For Project 2: IRR: NPV = -Initial Investment (C) + 70,000/(1+0. 2)1 + 70,000/(1+0. 2)2 +†¦+ 70,000/(1+0. 2)10 = 0; C = ? 293,474. NPV = -293,474/(1+0. 14)0 + 70,000/(1+0. 14)1 + 70,000/(1+0. 14)2 +†¦. + 70,000/(1+0. 14)10 = 71,655; D= ? 71,655For Project 3: Annual Net Cash Flow: IRR: NPV = -200,000 + E/(1+0. 14)1 + E/(1+0. 14)2 +†¦. + E/(1+0. 14)10 = 0; E = ? 38,343. Cost of Capital: 35,624 = -200,000 + 38,343/(1+F)1 + 38,343/(1+F)2 +†¦+ 38,343/(1+F)10 ; F = 11. 00% : through trial and error we calculated the value of cost of capital as 11. 00%. For Project 4: Annual Net Cash Flow: 39,000 = -300,000 + G/(1+0. 12)1 + G/(1. 12)2 +†¦. + G/(1. 12)10 ; G = ? 60,000; IRR (H): NPV= -? 300,000 + 60,000/ (1+R)1 + 60,000/(1+R)2 +†¦+ 60,000/(1+R)10 = 0. H = 15. 1%; by trial and error method we calculated the IRR of the 4th project as 15.1%. Project Selection Based on Available Data The investment techniques that have been used to evaluate the 4 projects have given us some important factors to consider before making the final decision. In light of the data available we suggest that project 3 should be chosen because firstly the initial investment is the lowest amongst all the four projects. Secondly another important factor is that the difference between the cost of capital and the IRR is less than some of the other projects more importantly the IRR is 14% which is the lowest amongst all the four projects.This means that if project 3 is pursued the company the is likely to achieve quick returns and even if the performance of the project is not outstanding due to external factors the company can make substantial returns from the project. The critical factor is that project 3 can b ring in returns far more quickly than other available projects as any returns beyond the 14% mark would be real returns on the investment. Another significant factor would be the saved money from the initial capital that can be used for other projects with similar or even better returns prospects.The cost of capital for this project is also the lowest amongst all other projects; this is also an indicator that change can be absorbed by the company. With project 3 we see that the annual cash flows are amongst the highest if we use the annual cash flow/ initial investment basis for comparison between all the four projects. This also indicates that project 3 is more viable than some of the other projects such as project 1. The only criticism of project 3 is that the gap between cost of capital and IRR is smaller than let’s say from project 1 or project 2.This creates a potential problem if and when interest rates start to increase then the project might become non-profitable in t erms of real rate of return. Conclusion The investment appraisal techniques have become an essential methodology to solve and answer critical questions when it comes to selecting major expansion projects. When companies go to venture capitalists or other financial institutions they must fulfill certain criteria before being given the amount of money they are looking for.Even in the investor industry most investors are required to provide there rate of return requirements before companies or other financial institutions could make tailored products for the investors. It must be emphasized here that companies must understand that other economic data is crucial in relation with the financial data that these appraisal techniques provide. Bibliography: The Institute of Chartered Accountants England and Wales, Investment Appraisal Techniques, viewed February 5, 2010 < http://financial. kaplan.co. uk/Documents/ICAEW/MI_Ch3_p. pdf> Schuster, Northcott, Gotze, 2008. Investment Appraisal: Met hods and Models, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg Martina Rohrich, 2007, Fundamentals of Investment Appraisal, Oldenbourg Coursework4you. co, Advantages and disadvantages of different appraisal techniques viewed February 5, 2010 < http://www. coursework4you. co. uk/essays-and-dissertations/finance-and-accounting/investment-appraisals/P_F_61_Advantages_and_disadvantages_of_different_investment_appraisals_techniques. php>Course Work 2 Introduction: The dynamics of any industry determine what factors will impact the demand and supply of a particular good or service being bought or sold in that particular market. Some of the major factors that affect the demand for most kinds of products or services include: consumer tastes, income levels, availability of substitute goods and their prices, availability and prices of complementary goods, future price expectations and the general level of literacy of the population and population growth.The other aspect of any market would be the supply side; how do the supply side factors impact the market for goods or services. For instance some major factors include technological advancements, cost of production, the number of suppliers and regulatory framework. A combination of these demand side and supply side factors determines the prices that markets ultimately charge from consumers given that the markets are allowed to function in a free market setting. Technology Market: In particular the Computer MarketWhen we discuss the computer market in isolation we must understand that it is affected greatly by the overall technology market which plays a critical role in determining which new products and services will be offered by these computers and how will these computers be manufactured in the future. Technology has revolutionized the way we do business and other activities around the world. A significant contribution of technological revolution is the machine we call: a computer. From the time of the first computers and up til l today we have witnessed remarkable change.For starters let’s just talk about the change in size of the computers. The point here is that ever since the advent of the computing machine and later the full fledged computer we have since tremendous amount of changes that have occurred along the revolution. These changes have had an impact on both the price of the computer and also on the cost of production of a modern day computer. Demand Side Factors The growth in different technology products such as hand held devices, laptops, desk top computers, I-pods, I-pads, E-books, and PDAs are some examples of what the consumer of today’s world has been buying and accepting for some time.The important factor here is that most technological products are not market oriented rather they are product-led or developed with a perspective of generating enough interest and demand from the market as opposed to the idea of providing products which are required by the market. The demand fo r computers in specific can be divided into two broad categories firstly the demand from the corporate world or offices and secondly from home users who demand desktops. When companies around the globe started to employ and use desktop computers in the 1980s and 1990s; one could see a revolution taking place that would forever change the workplace.These companies converted there existing manual operations on to computers and resultantly we saw dramatic changes in efficiency levels and the ability of companies to become more productive increased many folds. (Samuelson, 2005) This change in the way companies work led to computers becoming a need for majority of the companies in different sectors such as manufacturing, services and primary related industries. The computers, especially desktop computers had become a necessity for companies by mid-90s and onwards. This factor had made computers an important part of any firms capital requirements.(Samuelson, 2005) As far as the households were concerned computers soon after they were being mass-produced in the 80s become a necessity because of the change in the societal factors and requirements at workplace and schools demanded households to have computers at home. During these similar times (80s and 90s) income levels of the middle class households also increased on yearly basis. This was especially the case in the developing countries such as India, China and Brazil. The income levels were also rising in the developed countries which also warranted the increase in demand for computers.We saw that through the 1990s and 2000s the demand for complementary goods and services to the computers also increased. For instance the internet warranted the need for routers, wireless networks and other devices that were mandatory for office work and households. Similarly camera equipment that could connect them to PCs, mobile cables and other many products and services that were used in conjunction with the PCs were being increa singly demanded. We also saw the strength in the demand for substitutes and a consistent fall in their prices.For example a direct substitute of a computer is a handheld device which could be used for most of the purposes that a computer might offer. Even though these substitutes were available yet people ensured that they have at least one personal computer. This strength in demand is a result of the many features that a computer provides over some of its substitutes such as printing options, scanning, and video conference and so on. These added advantages and features have made computers an absolute necessity for the modern home.Another important factor that has played a critical role in increasing the demand for computers is the future expectations of technology and uncertainty. Because people feel that in the near future more emphasis will be given on efficiency and productivity it is imperative to keep up to date with the present technology. The combination of all these factors have created a scenario where by computers have become a part of the daily life of all individuals of the modern age. The internet has only helped the cause of the computers and we see that computers are an essential part of the workplace as well as the home of a particular individual.Supply-Side Factors The technological leap in the latter half of the last century has changed the way work takes place in a typical office of a manufacturing plant today. The reason is simple: the computer and technologies related to the computer. Not only have computers made it easier for companies to make products faster but they have also made companies more flexible and technology hungry. The supply of computers has been increasing at a great pace not only because of high demand but also due to technological changes that are taking place at all times.Between 1990 and 2002 there was a large decline in the prices of computer chips; this in part explains why computers prices were still falling even t hough demand continued to rise during that period. An important factor to understand here is that after the initial increases in the demand in the early 90s soon there was a surplus scenario in the chip market secondly, the rapid change in technology meant that older machines were quickly becoming obsolete hence pushing the prices even further down. (Lipsey and Chyrstal, 2007) Source: http://www.oup. com/uk/orc/bin/9780199286416/01student/interactive/lipsey_extra_ch03/page_01. htm In the diagram above we see that the prices of chips continued to fall between 1990 and 2002 except for the 92-95 period when the prices actually went up slightly the reason for the rise could be explained as the shift in the demand curve to the right as a result of the increase in the demand for complementary software that required high speed computer usage during this time; such as multimedia programs or other gaming and educational programs.The decline in the chip prices also explains the fact that cost of production was also declining rapidly during this time and that more and more suppliers of computers were entering the market. This increased competition for customers meant that prices had an even bigger drop. The increased competition also meant that firms that produce computers try to compete on cost as well as brand image. In an overall analysis of the supply-side of the computer and technology market we would say that prices have had a consistent downward pressure because of declining cost of production and a constant and rapid change in technology.There are a number of other important factors such as the availability of other important devices that have caused the prices of computers to fall down such as cheaper motherboards and RAMs. (Lipsey & Chrystal, 2007) Competition is also an important factor in determining the quality and prices of products such as computers. We see that competition has impacted cost of production by a large amount; many firms that manufacture comp uter and related devices have introduced more and better technologies that are cheaper and faster in processing data.In a lot of ways the market expects and demands computers which are cheaper and faster as we move into the future. This is because businesses and individuals know that computers are meant to reduce the time taken to complete work and achieve this objective in a cost effective way therefore more and more people and businesses demand cheaper computers. Market Scenario: Demand and Supply The market situation is such that the production of computers and the pace of technology have outpaced the overall growth in demand for computers.More importantly the increase in the demand for computers has been in phases when a shift in demand has caused a slight increase in computer prices. The decline in prices is also evident because of transfer of technology amongst different regions of the globe. Many of the developing countries have received technology and cheaper computers from the developed world which has further increased the process of better technological innovation and ever declining prices of computers.There is also a case of understanding that computers are a type of machine that must be renovated or renewed periodically therefore many companies are willing to sell them at lower prices knowing that costumers will buy new machines in the future and they will invest in newer technology. Therefore computer manufacturers have been pursuing brand holding strategies which includes selling computers to buyers at competitive rates.

Do Video Games Make Us More Violent - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 6 Words: 1832 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2019/08/02 Category Society Essay Level High school Tags: Violence in Video Games Essay Did you like this example? Introduction For about ten years, there have been constant arguments about juveniles playing violent video games and the affects those games have on them. There have been school shootings, violent incidents, and juvenile delinquent behaviors that appear to have been linked to the physically violent video games they are interested in playing. The biggest argument about these violent video games are the games feeding into the juveniles aggression or are there other factors in the juveniles life. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Do Video Games Make Us More Violent?" essay for you Create order For instance, how is their life at home, what do they watch on television, are they abused, and what social economic status are they in.   Technology progresses every day and so do the video games, the video game consoles, and the graphics. Years ago the games were violent, but the graphics were not near what they are today. Video games are no longer only a childrens toy they have become a significant cultural force crossing old demographic boundaries, and now the games are played either online or off (State of the industry report 2000-2001, 2001). Players can play online, which means the player can play with anyone in the world. If the player has a headset they can hear other players, communicate with them, and share information to assist each other during the game. These games are considered Role-Playing games (RPG) and another type online video game is a Massively Multi-player online role-playing game (MMRPG) both of these are very popular with teens. This paper will look at available, peer-reviewed, scholarly works to find out if violent video games cause juveniles to become more violent in their behavior. Also this paper will discuss the detail violence shown in the video games and what exactly juveniles are exposed to while playing. To begin, there will be a discussion of the violence and the ratings that go with the different types of video games. Along with the definition of different ratings and terms used in video games, other terms found in this paper will be defined. The method used to select the studies to be included will be discussed followed by the limitations of this paper. The effects of violence in video games and the effects on juveniles will be discussed in general terms and then broken down into more specific categories, that is males compared to female juveniles, how often the juvenile plays the video games, and so forth. Before the conclusion of the paper, areas that were identified as needing further research will be discussed. Physically Violent Video Games What makes a video game violent? Shooting, killing, or running people over with a car? Sex, drugs, or prostitution? The problem with this it depends on whom is making this decision. Games are rated by the Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB). The rating are from everyone (E) to adults only (AO). Video Game Ratings  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB) assigns each game an age-based label created by assessing several content rating categories, including violence, use of illicit substances, ill-mannered language, nudity, and sexual references.   Research has shown that user rating and expert ratings were reliable and valid measures of the violent content in video games (Center, 2015). For example, some games that are considered violent are: Grand Theft Auto V (rated M for Mature), Call of Duty (rated Mature), Assassins Creed (rated Mature), and Hitman (rated Mature). Grand Theft Auto V (also known as GTA V) allows the player to drive around a city. Players can exit the vehicle rob, beat, or rape people. The player can steal cars and get into a police chase. Players can also shoot and/or murder people. During the game the player can sleep with prostitutes, go into strip clubs, and use drugs. Of course, the rating Mature comes from the intense violence, blood and gore, mature humor, nudity, strong language, use of drugs and alcohol. Call of Duty is a first person game where a player can go into warfare either solo or as a team. Players can organize a team and talk to other teammates to tell them when to move while in combat. The player can shoot people, blow people up with grenades, or cut a players throat. Killing a player is very graphic and bloody. Rating for this game is Mature based off the blood and gore, drug references, intense violence, and strong language. Assassins Creed is a game where players feel guilty and are able to decide how much revenge they will purse as well as how they will assassinate other players. Players get rewarded for certain kills and taking down key targets. Missions include cutting someones throat from behind, breaking their neck, or stabbing them with swords. Assassins Creed is not as violent as the above games, but the killing is graphic. Rating for this game is Mature based off the brutal violence and strong language. Hitman is a game where the player is a paid hitman. Players travel the globe and track down mob targets.   The player can kill the target by any means necessary, but the most common way is by shooting them. Rating for this game is Mature based off the blood, intense violence, strong language, use of drugs and alcohol. Video Game Violence In violent video games, the player must identify targets, choose violent strategies to kill the targets and/or survive. Violence in video games is considered justified and entertaining. Some researchers argue that it has been proven that playing violent video games increases negative cognitions, affect, and behaviors. More work is needed to identify who is at more of a risk for negative impact and under what conditions negative outcomes are most likely to occur. (Funk, Flores, Buchman, and Germann 1999). Method This paper is a literature review that examines published, peer-reviewed, scholarly works on the effects of juveniles playing violent video games and whether being exposed to the violence causes the juveniles to become more violent or aggressive. The search for qualifying works yielded hundreds of articles and published studies addressing the effects that violent video games have on juveniles. Literature was chosen to be included in this review that presented experimental or quasi-experimental studies which had reasonable control groups and dealt with relatively large groups of subjects. Since much literature looked at the same data from previous studies, albeit in different ways, studies and articles that did not cover the same material were selected for inclusion where possible. Newer works were favored over older works however, works from all decades since the argument started about violent video games may have an effect on a juveniles behavior are included. Limitations This paper is limited to analyzing previously published works and presenting conclusions drawn from that analysis. No new experimentation or field research was conducted in conjunction with this paper and statistical manipulation of the data analyzed is outside the realm of this paper. The information presented here has the danger of being influenced by publication bias. Publication bias is the phenomena of the findings of published papers being inflated simply because publishers tend to choose articles for publication that present significant findings while passing on articles that have less dramatic conclusions. In this case, there is a second level of potential publication bias which is, the authors selection of works to include in this paper. An effort was made to select a representative subset of the available works for inclusion and not to only select those articles that had dramatic findings in favor or against violent video games. All selections were made with the aim of limiting publication bias in mind. Violent Video Game Effects on Juveniles There are a number of ways the effects of juveniles playing violent video games could be evaluated. First, it has to be determine what behaviors are being looked for and what ages will be tested. Previous reviewed literature, showed that violent video game exposure was associated with the following behaviors: an increased composite aggression score; increased aggressive behavior; increased aggressive cognitions; increased aggressive affect, increased desensitization, and decreased empathy; and increased physiological arousal (Calvert et al., 2017). These behaviors were looked at but there was insufficient evidence to show a potential link between violent video game use and delinquency or criminal behavior in juveniles. Playing violent video games has been linked to juveniles having an aggressive personality. Juveniles exposed to excessive violent video games can lead to them being meaner, more aggressive, and more violent. They can also become more desensitized to violence (both in the media and in real life), more callous, and less sympathetic to victims of violence (Center, 2015). Of course, this has not been prove to be a definite effect on all juveniles. It has shown a popularity of violent video games and the level of the violence in the games can affect juveniles significantly. When a juvenile experiences aggressive behavior it can cause aggressive knowledge which can structure their minds to develop differently and may change the juveniles personality structure. A persons personality is shaped by experience and requires repeated experiences to create lasting change. Looking at the General Aggression Model (GAM) it acknowledges that (a) experience influences knowledge, perception, affective states, and belief; (b) which are used to guide peoples interpretations and behavioral responses to their social (and physical) environment; and (c) can become automatic with practice (Anderson Bushman, 2002). Therefore, long-term effects can include a change in the individuals personality or cause aggressive behavior. The main concern with these studies is the effects of prolonged exposure to playing the violent video games. How these juveniles see the world and react to it depends on the particular situational factors in their world and on the knowledge they have learned and habitually use. Unfortunately, juveniles can learn complicated behaviors, attitudes, expectations and beliefs through playing these violent video games. It can be argued though that these juveniles see this type of behavior and actions on television also; so could it be strictly playing the violent video games or a combination of both. This is why these studies are great in learning the effects that the games can have, but the outside contributions also have to be looked at while investigating. Not only watching television, the home life has to be examined, the social economic status the family lives in, and what other things have gone on in the juveniles life. For instance, has the juvenile experienced any type of trauma in his or her life? Has the juvenile been severely abused or seen someone abused? These types of factors could also hinder these types of studies. Desensitization to Violence Which leads to the next factor that has shown a problem with juveniles in this day and age. Repeated exposure to violence in video games that juveniles play can cause a desensitization to violence. This means a person is experiencing milder physiological reactions and has become less anxious following repeated exposure to a stimulus (Anderson et al., 2010; Carnagey, Anderson Bushman, 2007; Cline, Croft, Courier, 1973). Desensitization is a gradual process that reduces a persons initial arousal responses to an impulse.